Background

Systemic racism in Canada has been an issue since the arrirval of the European settler population (Feagin & Bennefield, 2014). Despite some progress, non-white minorities still face ongoing challenges, particularly in achieving leadership roles, as discriminatory practices and stereotypes are embedded within laws, policies, and societal norms (Government of Canada, 2022). These patterns of inequality are reflected within the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF), where systemic racism hinders leadership diversity and limits opportunities for visible minorities and Indigenous peoples to rise to senior positions (Bonilla-Silva, 2021; Government, 2022).

The CAF has recognized this issue in reports such as the Minister of National Defence Advisory Panel on Systemic Racism and Discrimination (2022), which identifies key areas requiring reform. Leadership diversity is recognized as essential for military cohesion, operational effectiveness, and the institution’s credibility with the Canadian public (Department of National Defence, 2022). Improving leadership diversity in the CAF not only strengthens its alignment with Canadian values but also fosters trust with minority communities. The stakeholders involved in this effort include the Department of National Defence (DND), advocacy groups like the Canadian Anti-Hate Network, and minority soldiers themselves. These groups play key roles in driving the necessary changes to create an inclusive culture within the CAF.

The 2021-2022 Employment Equity Report shows that while visible minorities account for 21.3% of the Canadian workforce, they represent only 20.6% of the CAF, with a pronounced lack of representation in leadership positions (Government of Canada, 2023). Indigenous peoples face even greater challenges, with representation falling below the 4% workforce availability benchmark (Government, 2023). These disparities underscore the urgent need for reform to ensure diverse representation at all levels, particularly in senior ranks, where minority voices and perspectives are crucial for inclusive and effective decision-making.

Policy Issue

The CAF faces significant challenges in promoting leadership diversity due to the systemic racism in its recruitment and promotion practices (Government, 2022). Visible minorities remain underrepresented in senior leadership, despite making up a growing proportion of Canada’s population (Government of Canada, 2024; Government, 2023;). These structural barriers restrict racialized minorities from access to career advancement and leadership opportunities, thereby diminishing morale within the ranks and eroding public trust in the CAF’s commitment to equity and representation (Agocs, 2018; Government, 2024).

To close the representation gap, immediate policy actions are required that establish transparenta and equitable promotion pathways, hold decision-makers accountable for addressing biases, cultivate an inclusive culture that values diverse leadership, ensure accountability for discriminatory practices, and create a more inclusive leadership structure (Beard et al., 2020; Stewart, 2021). Without these reforms, the CAF risks perpetuating systemic racism, weakening operational effectiveness, and compromising its ability to reflect the values of a diverse Canadian society. Addressing these disparities is crucial for building a leadership structure that reflects Canada’s diversity and strengthens the CAF’s credibility and cohesion (Canada, 2022).

Analysis

The Minister of National Defence Advisory Panel on Systemic Racism and Discrimination report (Department of National Defence, 2022) provides a key foundation for analyzing systemic racism within the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) by offering a comprehensive overview of the institutional challenges related to discrimination with particular implications for leadership diversity. It touches on a wide array of issues, including anti-Indigenous and anti-Black racism, LGBTQ2+ prejudice, gender bias, and white supremacy within the CAF. By focusing on how these systemic issues affect the advancement and representation of minority groups within leadership roles, the report also underscores the CAF's acknowledgment of structural barriers that hinder leadership diversity and the urgent need for targeted reforms (Department of National Defence, 2022).

The 2022 report serves as a crucial piece of evidence for this policy brief, highlighting how the CAF’s current efforts are insufficient without deeper structural reforms. The report provides a diagnosis of the problem and an institutional acknowledgment that change is necessary, which are essential for building a case for my recommendations (Department of National Defence, 2022).

1. Representation Gaps in Leadership

CAF leadership remains predominantly white, with visible minorities holding only 9% of senior roles (Government, 2023). The 2021-2022 Employment Equity Report highlights the significant underrepresentation of Indigenous peoples and visible minorities in decision-making positions, reinforcing the need for targeted recruitment and promotion efforts (Government, 2023).

The underrepresentation of Indigenous peoples and visible minorities in the CAF reflects broader trends in Canada’s Labour Market Availability (LMA). As shown in Figure 1, White individuals account for 73.4% of Canada’s LMA, while visible minorities and Indigenous peoples make up 22.0% and 4.0%, respectively. However, within the CAF, visible minorities and Indigenous members are disproportionately underrepresented in leadership roles, despite their growing presence in the general workforce.

For example, visible minorities represent 21.8% of Canada’s total population and 22.0% of the LMA yet hold only about 9% of senior leadership positions within the CAF (Department of National Defence, 2022).23 Similarly, Indigenous peoples, who make up 4.0% of the LMA24 are severely underrepresented in leadership positions within the CAF, facing unique challenges related to both recruitment and retention. The CAF's leadership remains overwhelmingly composed of White men, a trend that does not reflect Canada’s increasingly diverse population.

Figure 1: Canada’s Total Population vs. Labour Market Availability (2SLGBTQIA+ Data Not Available) (Government of Canada, 2019

The 2022-2023 Employment Equity Report highlights mixed progress in the representation of designated groups within the Canadian workforce (Government, 2023). The representation of visible minorities has increased significantly from 20.6% in 2022 to 25.3% in 2023, surpassing the workforce availability of 21.3%, which is a positive trend (Government, 2024). Similarly, persons with disabilities have seen an increase from 11.6% to 12.9%, exceeding the workforce availability of 9.1% (Government, 2024).

However, despite these gains, Indigenous peoples remain underrepresented, with only 3.2% representation compared to their 4% workforce availability (Government, 2024). This reflects ongoing challenges in achieving equitable inclusion, particularly in leadership roles. The underrepresentation of Indigenous peoples, in both the workforce and in leadership within the CAF, underscores the need for more effective recruitment and retention policies.

While women are well-represented at 57.1% in the workforce, the leadership positions within the CAF remain predominantly occupied by White men (Government, 2024). These disparities are most pronounced at higher ranks, where visible minorities and Indigenous members are often excluded from decision-making roles. The data indicates that the CAF's ongoing efforts to implement the Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion (EDI) Action Plan are necessary, but additional targeted strategies are essential for sustained and meaningful progress across all designated groups.

Figure 2: Percentage Representation of Employment Equity Groups (Government, 2024)

2. Barriers to Career Advancement

Systemic racism in institutions often creates barriers to career advancement, such as opaque promotion criteria and a lack of mentors for BIPOC individuals (Stewart, 2021). Indigenous soldiers in particular face significant cultural and logistical challenges that hinder their advancement (Department of National Defence, 2022). The requirement to serve far from home for extended periods often conflicts with their strong cultural and community obligations, such as the requirement to serve far from home for extended periods, making it difficult for Indigenous members to participate in leadership development programs fully (Agocs, 2018). For other racialized groups, opaque promotion processes and unequal access to mentorship further limit career progression.

The data underscores the urgency of addressing these representation gaps through targeted policies aimed at removing barriers to career advancement for racialized groups in the CAF (Government, 2022; Government, 2024). By aligning its recruitment and promotion strategies more closely with Canada’s diverse LMA, the CAF can not only meet its diversity goals but also improve operational effectiveness, allowing its leadership to draw on a wider range of perspectives and experiences.

3. Systemic Racism and Discrimination in the CAF

The 2022 Minister of National Defence Advisory Panel on Systemic Racism and Discrimination provides an in-depth assessment of the systemic barriers faced by Indigenous peoples, Black Canadians, LGBTQ2+ members, and women within the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) (Department of National Defence, 2022). The report highlights how entrenched biases and institutional norms perpetuate inequities across the organization, particularly in recruitment, retention, and promotion processes (Department of National Defence, 2022). According to the report, issues of anti-Indigenous and anti-Black racism, gender bias, and white supremacy continue to hinder the CAF's efforts to create an inclusive and equitable environment (Department of National Defence, 2022).

The report’s findings underscore the prevalence of white supremacy and unconscious bias in the CAF, which disproportionately affect the advancement opportunities for members of marginalized groups (Department of National Defence, 2022). The panel emphasized that these systemic issues lead to lower morale, higher attrition rates among BIPOC members, and a lack of trust between the CAF and minority communities. Moreover, the report noted that the CAF's existing diversity and inclusion efforts, while positive, lack sufficient oversight and accountability mechanisms to ensure lasting change.

These findings make clear that the CAF must undertake more comprehensive reforms, including mandatory anti-racism training, revising recruitment policies, and strengthening promotion transparency, to dismantle the systemic barriers preventing equitable inclusion in leadership roles.

4. Impacts on Morale, Operational Readiness, and Public Trust

The presence of systemic racism within the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) significantly damages both internal morale and external public trust, leading to higher attrition rates among minority members and undermining overall operational readiness (Agocs, 2018; Department of National Defence, 2022). Indigenous members, in particular, are underrepresented in leadership positions, especially among officers, which erodes unit cohesion—a critical element for military effectiveness.

Discriminatory practices also alienate potential recruits from diverse backgrounds, limiting the CAF’s ability to attract and retain top talent. Recruitment efforts are hampered by the perception that the CAF is unwelcoming to racialized groups. While initiatives like the Bold Eagle program support Indigenous recruitment, they lack ongoing cultural support within the broader military system (Department of National Defence, 2022). This lack of inclusivity alienates potential recruits and deprives the CAF of the diverse perspectives needed for modern military operations.

Furthermore, systemic racism within the CAF tarnishes its public image, particularly among minority communities (Government, 2023). Cases such as that of lead plaintiff Jean-Pierre Robillard, who endured racial slurs during his 17 years of service, highlight how the continued presence of discriminatory behaviour misrepresents Canada's values of equality and justice (Petracek, 2024). This not only weakens the CAF’s operational capacity but also affects its reputation as an institution that should reflect Canada’s commitment to diversity and inclusion, further hindering its recruitment efforts.

Recommendations

This set of recommendations offers a path to addresings systemic racism and foster leadership diversity within the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF. These recommendations focus on both immediate actions and long-term strategies specifically aimed at increasing diversity within the CAF’s leadership ranks, creating pathways for equitable advancement, and cultivating a culture where diverse leadership can thrive. By implementing these policies, the CAF can enhance its operational effectiveness, foster an inclusive culture at all leadership levels, and build a leadership structure that aligns with Canada’s commitment to equity and diversity.

Each recommendation provides actionable steps to overcome barriers in recruitment, retention, and career advancement, while also introducing mechanisms for accountability and transparency. These policy options are designed to create a sustainable framework for diversity and inclusion, ensuring that progress is measurable and continuous.

1. Introduce Transparent Promotion Processes

To ensure more fairness in career advancement, the CAF should implement standardized, transparent promotion criteria that allow members equal opportunities to progress into leadership roles. Stewart's (2021) article emphasizes the importance of standardized, transparent promotion processes, especially for visible minority individuals. It explains how opaque hiring and promotion criteria often disadvantage minorities due to unconscious bias and familiarity bias: the hiring or promoting individuals who share similar backgrounds with existing leaders and those who resemble themselves (Beard et al., 2020; Stewart, 2021).

Currently, promotion in the CAF depends on various factors, with priority given based on organizational needs and the member’s eligibility (Government, 2024). These factors include position vacancy, recommendation, seniority, performance, potential, language requirements, and operational standards. The lack of clarity in promotion decisions can disadvantage marginalized groups, who often do not have the same access to informal networks or mentorship as their white counterparts (Stewart, 2021). By formalizing promotion standards, the CAF can ensure that all personnel are judged on merit, not informal relationships or subjective criteria. This recommendation takes account of the Canadian Military announcement that the latest phase of updates to its promotion process will be introduced this fall (Rehman, 2024). Since 2021, the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) has been implementing concrete changes to establish a transparent and equitable promotion system across all ranks (Rehman, 2024).

Steps for Execution:

• Design a new promotion framework: This framework should include clearly defined transparent criteria for each level of advancement (Beard et al., 2020), focusing on experience, skills, and performance, and be free of bias. By making the promotion process more merit-based, the CAF can address similar challenges faced in nursing and other fields. Co-learning between sectors will be helpful.

• Establish a mentorship program: Pair visible minority members with senior officers to guide career progression. Mentorship will help underrepresented groups build the networks and skills necessary to navigate the promotion process. It is very important to mentor Black and Brown leaders to ensure they succeed after being promoted (Beard et al., 2020).

• Set timelines for implementation: The framework should be in place by Q2 2025, with regular reviews and updates every two years to ensure the criteria remain relevant and unbiased.

By introducing clear promotion criteria, combined with mentorship programs, these steps can help overcome the biases and barriers that traditionally prevent marginalized personnel from advancing into leadership positions (Stewart, 2021). Mentorship programs provide these personnel with the social capital often necessary for career progression, which can offset the effects of bias and exclusion (Beard et al., 2020).

2. Enhance Diversity in and Retention Efforts

To address the significant underrepresentation of visible minorities and Indigenous peoples in leadership positions, the CAF must adopt more targeted recruitment strategies and create culturally sensitive retention programs (Stewart, 2021). These efforts should reflect the broader demographics of Canada’s Labour Market Availability (LMA), as depicted in Figure 1 above. Beard explained how targeted recruitment efforts alone are not sufficient without also addressing the institutional barriers that discourage minority participation (Beard et al., 2020). This reinforces the need for culturally sensitive recruitment strategies in the CAF, as well as retention programs that address the unique challenges faced by BIPOC members, particularly Indigenous peoples.

Steps to Execute:

• Targeted recruitment campaigns: This involves addressing institutional racism through targeted recruitment strategies that are culturally sensitive (Beard et al., 2020). The CAF should develop recruitment materials specifically tailored to visible minorities and Indigenous communities, emphasizing the benefits of a military career and addressing cultural concerns that may discourage participation, such as the distance from home and long service periods.

• Cultural support programs: By learning from the challenges faced in other sectors, where recruitment strategies have not always resulted in sustained diversity, the CAF can design more effective outreach programs that directly address cultural and logistical barriers, particularly for Indigenous members (Stewart, 2021). For Indigenous members, the CAF should implement programs that allow for more flexible service arrangements, such as closer deployments or shorter-term service commitments that respect cultural and community ties.

• Incentives for retention: Offer retention bonuses and leadership development opportunities for members of underrepresented groups and providing clearer pathways to advancement will help to close the representation gap in leadership (Beard et al., 2020). This flexibility and support for Indigenous and minority personnel would help the CAF retain diverse talent by making service commitments more accessible to underrepresented groups.

3. Implement Mandatory Anti-Racism Training

Combatting systemic racism requires educating all personnel on the realities of discrimination and fostering an environment of cultural competence and understanding. Anti-racism training should be mandatory for all ranks, focusing on unconscious bias, systemic inequality, and how to foster an inclusive workplace. In the CAF, mandatory anti-racism training for all ranks would help address unconscious biases, improve cultural competence, and foster a more inclusive environment (Beard et al., 2020; Stewart, 2021). Systemic racism continues will not diminish if not actively countered with educational programs and ongoing professional development (Stewart, 2021). This training should be dynamic, updated regularly to reflect current issues and research, and integrated into the CAF’s leadership development programs. Other sectors offer a course on "Anti-Racism Strategies for the Workplace" which emphasizs the importance of understanding historic and current racism in Canada, learning from racialized professionals' experiences, and developing strategies to dismantle racism within organizations (e.g. UBC Extended Learning, 2024).

Steps to Execute:

• Annual review and update: Ensure that the training evolves to address emerging issues and includes real-world case studies to demonstrate the consequences of racism within the military (Stewart, 2021). The mandatory anti-racism training should be designed not just as a one-time event but as a recurring initiative that evolves, to address unconscious bias and institutional racism. This approach should aligns with the  emphasis on developing anti-racist strategies essential for building regenerative and healthy workplaces (UBC, 2024).

• Evaluation mechanisms: Measure the effectiveness of the training through feedback surveys and performance reviews, ensuring it leads to real, quantifiable improvements in behaviour and attitudes. Like in the nursing and academic fields, the CAF should implement evaluation mechanisms to monitor the effectiveness of training and ensure accountability at all levels of leadership (Beard et al., 2020). This aligns with the goal of providing tools to build awareness, create relevant strategies, and engage in immediate actions to make workplaces more anti-racist and equitable (UBC, 2024).