Yassmeen El-Hariri, Simon Fraser University | September 5, 2025
Remedying the Warrior Attitude
Mitigating Exclusion and the Creation of Vulnerabilities of Women in the CAF
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Executive Summary
Successive external reports about sexual misconduct in the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF). completed in 2015 and 2022 revealed that Canada’s military culture was “sexualized” and created a hostile environment for its female members (Deschamps, 2015; Arbour, 2022). The warrior culture that exists in the CAF has been conducive to the creation of a hyper-masculine environment in which women are forced to perform in traditionally masculine ways to protect themselves and achieve career progression in the military. In fact, both male and female recruits who are unable to conform, a measure often judged according to traditional physical testing standards (Breede & Davis, 2022, p. 128), to the warrior standards are met with resentment and for women, this often comes in the form of sexual misconduct, from harrasment and unwanted comments to rape (Taber, 2017, p.23).
These issues have been prevalent in the military for several years and continue to persist despite CAFs efforts to combat different forms of misconduct. As such, cultural and structural changes are needed in the form of 1) Increasing the number of women in positions of power in the CAF and 2) shifting away from warrior culture to a well-defined culture centered on the “professional soldier”. Firstly, having more women in the military would help shift gender norms and balance hierarchies, setting an example by showing how women are able to perform to the same level as their male counterparts (Morris, 1996, p. 723). Targeted promotion programs, bias-mitgation in promotion processes and diverse career progression pathways would all allow for greater retention of women in the CAF and ultimately greater representation in higher ranks. Secondly, the professional soldier culture would help mitigate some of the existing group mentality that has been so conducive to pervasive sexual misconduct, encouraging CAF members to reflect on their behaviour and professionalism (Breede & Davis, 2020, p. 131). To implement this culture change, key documents and training need to be transformed to align with a new outlook on what it means to member of a modern military.
Introduction
Since 1989, women have been legally permitted to perform all the same positions as men in the CAF. This move was made to ensure the military reflects changes in broader Canadian society (Pierotti, 2020, p.24). This move led to the appearance of gender equality in the military and is often cited by senior leadership in discussing the accepting nature of the CAF compared to other militaries (Pierotti, 2020, p.21). However, the legal integration of women has proven to be superficial: the cultural integration and acceptance of women into the CAF remains a difficult task. This is largely due to a masculinist culture and “warrior” ideal that emphasizes certain traits as essential for the job of a soldier (Gregory, 2022, p.53). Warrior culture has proven to be a consistent and deeply ingrained idea in the CAF as it has been introduced very early on in the education of young soldiers since 2003 with the introduction of cornerstone documents like “Duty with Honour: The Profession of Arms in Canada (Gregory, 2022, p.53).
As a result, female soldiers are often met with hostility unless they conform to the masculine standards, leaving them uncomfortable in the workplace (Lane, 2017, p.465). This hostility has resulted in high rates of sexual harassment and misconduct, including a worrying trend of junior members being affected at much higher rates (Cotter & Burczycka, 2023, p.7).
Several external reports have been completed, including the 2015 Deschamps report that pointed to a sexualized culture as being largely responsible for posing a greater risk of harm and sexual misconduct for female members. This report led to reforms through Operation Honour. However, the new reporting tool allowed for easier reporting which only further highlighted how sexual harassment continues to be a persistent issue in the CAF (Arbour, 2022, p.8). This resulted in the publishing of a second external report by former Supreme Court Justice and United Nations Human Rights Commissioner Louise Arbour, which pointed out the failures of the CAF in remedying the ongoing issues. Again, Arbour would cite culture as a major cause of the rates of sexual misconduct.
Problem Statement
Gender inclusivity allows militaries to become more representative of their societies, which ultimately results in better overall performance (Slapakova et al., 2022, p.v). However, currently women in the military are highly underrepresented and those who do join, often leave early, due to high sexual assault rates and a feeling of exclusion (Stawarz, 2024). The consistent high rates of sexual misconduct in the CAF, particularly amongst women, demonstrates a problem with the military’s culture, the warrior ideal and the emphasis on masculinity as essential to a soldier’s performance (Breede & Davis, 2020, p.119). A lack of deconstruction over what is behind warrior culture’s has allowed it to become infused with masculinity and the glorification of this figure has become the basis of excluding and harassing women in the military (Breede & Davis, 2020, p.122). To ensure that current and future female recruits to the CAF feel welcomed and protected the following must be carried out: 1) implementation of programs targeted at retaining women to increase their presence in higher ranks and 2) a shift away from warrior culture toward a well-rounded professional ideal.
Key Findings
The Exclusionary Warrior Culture
The “warrior” is an idealized figure for CAF members, particularly combatants. However, the lack of definition assigned to the “warrior” has allowed for varied intepretation of this ideal (Gregory, 2022, p. 54). As “warrior” has never been clearly defined in CAF documentation, the term has been easily coopted by pre-existing military subcultures and therefore been used to support the exclusion of historically marginalized groups like women, racialized individuals, and members of the LGBTQ2SIA+ (Breede & Davis, 2020, p.126). The term has become exclusionary, and used only to describe a hypermasculine ideal meant to encourage soldiers to demonstrate traits such as courage, vigour, and aggression (Gregory, 2022, p.52). These traits are supposed to be conducive to military efficacy and cohesion for soldiers who are wholly committed to their duty and are ultimately associated with masculinity (Brown & Okros, 2019, p.44). As a result, the inclusion of groups like women in the CAF as soldiers are seen as potentially antithetical to the best interest of the military and its goals, creating an enemy “within” (Taber, 2017, p.23).
A Barrier for Female Recruits
The exclusive nature of warrior culture forces women to become “honorary men” to achieve career progression and to protect themselves in military contexts (Taber, 2005, p.293). When women exhibit femininity in the CAF, they are perceived as weak or unfit to be soldiers even if they are performing similarly or even outperforming their male counterparts (McCristall, 2023, pp.4-5). Pre-conceptions about women and their emotionality or lack of physical abilities lead to the perception that they need protection and are incapable of being protectors, making them a hindrance to the military (Lane, 2017, p. 465). Consequently, they are often relegated to support roles and their career progression plateaus much earlier than their male counterparts (Wood & Charbonneau, 2017, p.755). Alternatively, women will attempt to adhere to the masculine standard by participating in masculine activities even where this may make them uncomfortable (Biskupski-Mujanovic, 2022, p.156).
Warrior Culture and Sexual Misconduct
In this culture, soldiers are encouraged to engage in self-sacrifice, wholly commit themselves to the military and its mission, and execute all orders, no questions asked . As a result, soldiers are discouraged from engaging in self-reflection as it would go against the homogenous form of the military and expressing criticism puts a soldier’s loyalty and commitment into question (Brown & Okros, 2019. p.35). Soldiers are constantly faced with imposter syndrome about their ability to be warriors and are met with tests where their ability to adhere to the standards laid out by the ideal is put into question (Breede & Davis, 2020, p. 128). Members of the CAF may feel as though they are not meeting the standards set out for them if they were not constantly engaging in self-sacrifice through combat, deeming them “honourable” and allowing them to be perceived as such by their peers and superiors. However, this can also result in a feeling of resentment toward those who are not included in the warrior “ethos” and are not engaging in self-sacrifice through combat (Taber, 2017, p.23).
Consequently, women are made disproportionately vulnerable to sexual misconduct in the military because of the way they are positioned in relation to hyper-masculine warrior culture (Taber, 2017, p.22). The necessity of affirming one’s warrior-ness and reaffirming the existing culture that privileges masculinity over femininity has resulted in pervasive sexual misconduct which disproportionately affects women (Breede & Davis, 2020, p.128). Male soldiers are more inclined to engage in sexual violence toward their female counterparts to reaffirm their masculinity when they are faced with doubts about their ability to perform the hypermasculine warriors role, as these acts allow them to exhibit control and aggression (Morris, 1996, p.723). By committing these acts, male soldiers feel they are confirming their place in a hierarchy that marginalizes and dehumanizes women (Morris, 1996, p.723).
Group thinking also plays a role. Well-known inappropriate relationships between higher-ranking males and female subordinates create an environment where junior-ranking officials feel as though they are more likely to get away with sexual misconduct. These relationships also work to reinforce the existing power structure where women are made to feel marginal and below their male peers (Deschamps, 2015, p. 18). Women are discouraged from reporting to higher-ups, who themselves may be engaged in inappropriate behaviour, as they are known to take little action, ultimately creating an ethos where women feel unheard and unsafe (Deschamps, 2015, p. 18).
Source: Statistics Canada. (2022). Table 3 Canadian Armed Forces Regular Force members who were sexually assaulted in the past 12 months, by gender and selected characteristics of perpetrators, 2022. Statcan.gc.ca. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-603-x/2023001/tbl/tbl03-eng.htm#tbl03n_2
The above figure demonstrates how supervisors are the second most likely perpetrators of sexual misconduct – with a higher proportion of women reporting such occurrences. This behaviour at the top of the military sets an example that is conducive to an environment where sexual misconduct is more likely to occur.
Recommendations
Increasing Women’s Representation in the Higher Ranks
Having more women in higher ranks of the CAF can help to mitigate the issues with cultural integration, demonstrating how female leadership improves the military overall (Morris, 1996, p.238). Their ability to perform as like their male counterparts is reaffirmed when they are promoted. This dispels current mindsets about how women are “enemies within” when they are allowed into positions of power and disrupt the existing hierarchies and norms in the military. Women as leaders in the military can also help influence how sexual misconduct is handled , with more support for a victim-centred approach.
Women are highly underrepresented in all ranks which can be attributed to low retention rates and less career progression possibilities than male counterparts (Shields, 2020, p.6). This trend is often put down to parental responsibilities, with women in hetero-normative relationships taking on most of the child-rearing responsibilities (Carrazana, 2023). Implementing measures that mitigate the burden of these responsibilities by allowing for a balance of personal responsibilities and work progression would create more opportunities for women to stay in the CAF and be elibible for promotions.
The CAF should consider a flexible leave option or a career “on-hold” option that can help soldiers balance their parental duties along with career progression.
Currently, the CAF allows a parental leave option that gives new parents a combined 364 days of leave (Government of Canada, 2024). This policy is only available to parents during pregnancy or at birth/adoption. Otherwise, parents are forced to use other leave options to attend to childcare needs through their childrens’ lives. MILPERSCOM should offer and communicate new leave programs meant for parents that would give them more options in approaching a balancing act between attending to parental responsibilities and maintaining career progression. This can take the form of easier access to Leave Without Pay options or new paid leave programs directly aimed at parents. Such measures were implemented in the Australian Defense Forces after women reported similar challenges, and retention increased in the following years (ADF, 2018, p.42).
The CAF could implement a program designed to accelerate the career progression of potential female leaders who face obstacles to career progression such as delays resulting from maternity leave.
With the failure in messaging about the current initiative, “Pink List” (Arbour, 2022, p.254), the Minister of Defence should oversee a MILPERSCOM restructuring of the program and revise messaging to help create understanding as to how current promotion structures create additional barriers to women. The messaging should make clear that all members have trouble with a one-size-fits-all career path, particularly women, and that the Pink List is one way of mitigating these challenges and creating diversity in the higher ranks of the CAF.
Where the Pink List is not used, the current CAF performance review processes are meant to be unbiased. However, the Arbour report confirms that these processes often will not consider sexual misconduct allegations and can go unchecked allowing them to be based on the personal biases of head officers (Arbour, 2022, p. 270). This is one of many issues with the ‘unbiased’ approach.
The Minister of Defence should oversee a revision to current and future performance review processes such that ongoing investigations relating to sexual misconduct are considered. Additionally, in the reviews preceding a promotion, it should be a requirement that an external review process is completed by an adviser on intersectionality and gender inclusivity to ensure that gender bias is not affecting these processes (Arbour, 2022, p. 271).
Culture Change: From Warrior to Professional
The warrior ideal has persistently reinforced a gender binary in terms of hard and soft skills in the military, even following attempts at reform. For example, the CPCC attempted to create a definition that “recognize[s] that warriors should be both physically fit and emotionally capable” (Government of Canada, 2022). However, this has been seen as reinforcing a binary between the physicality of a soldier (masculine trait) in addition to emotionality (feminine trait) (Eichler et al., 2023, p.10).
A critical perspective of the warrior ideal is needed, The warrior continues to be privileged without any analysis of where the ideal comes from (Eichler et al., 2022, p.17). Additionally, such reform cannot be taken seriously as long as the warrior continues to lack a clear definition and remains subject to dominant military subcultures that have marginalized women.
Moving away from this figure as an ideal for soldiers and toward the “professional soldier” ideal where traits like self-reflection are encouraged will help mitigate some of the problems related to group thinking.
The “professional soldier” ideal helps counteract some of the major ideological obstacles that marginalize women, creating a space where physicality and aggression are not seen as the only markers of a good soldier. The “professional soldier” also works to de-personalize missions, having their capabilities judged based on task completion rather than intrinsic markers (Breede & Davis, 2020, p.130). Most importantly, the “professional soldier” ideal would work to reduce sexual misconduct as such behaviour would directly contradict with professionalism.
The CPCC should work with MILPERSCOM to reissue existing documentation, which highlights the warrior ideal as a cornerstone of CAF culture and the journey of becoming a soldier such as “Duty with Honour”. This should take place within two years. Documentation should change to reflect the “professional soldier” and directly engage with the term to ensure it is clearly defined and comprehensive in training materials. Language should reflect the broad range of characteristics that the professional encompasses and how these traits can be applied to a wide group of people to prevent the term from acting exclusionary as the warrior did.
Training procedures should also follow suit to ensure that the wide range of traits that the “professional soldier” should take on are emphasized and nurtured. Having an expert in intersectionality to advise during this process would be helpful to ensure that the “professional soldier” remains an inclusive figure, preventing the current hyper-masculine subculture from affecting it in the same way that it did the “warrior”.
Proposed Timeline for Policy Implementation
Source: Defence, N. (2022, April 25). Minister of National Defence Advisory Panel on Systemic Racism and Discrimination – Final Report – January 2022. https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/corporate/reports-publications/mnd-advisory-panel-systemic-racism-discrimination-final-report-jan-2022.html
Summary of Key Milestones
2024–2025: Initiate leave policy reforms and launch flexible options for balancing family and career.
2025–2026: Finalize updated messaging for leadership pathways like the "pink list" and redefine the soldier's ideal in military documentation.
2026–2028: Implement training reforms to shift from the warrior ideal to professional inclusivity and evaluate leadership programs.
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